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Windows XP is an operating system that was produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, and media centers. It was first released to computer manufacturers on August 24, 2001,^[3] and is the most popular version of Windows, based on installed user base. The name "XP" is short for "eXPerience."^[4]

Windows XP was the successor to both Windows 2000 and Windows Me, and was the first consumer-oriented operating system produced by Microsoft to be built on the Windows NT kernel and architecture. Windows XP was released for retail sale on October 25, 2001, and over 400 million copies were in use in January 2006, according to an estimate in that month by an IDC analyst.^[5] It was succeeded by Windows Vista, which was released to volume license customers on November 8, 2006, and worldwide to the general public on January 30, 2007. Direct OEM and retail sales of Windows XP ceased on June 30, 2008. Microsoft continued to sell Windows XP through their System Builders (smaller OEMs who sell assembled computers) program until January 31, 2009.^[6][7] XP may continue to be available as these sources run through their inventory or by purchasing Windows 7 Ultimate, Windows 7 Pro, Windows Vista Ultimate or Windows Vista Business, and then downgrading to Windows XP.^[8][9]

The most common editions of the operating system were Windows XP Home Edition, which was targeted at home users, and Windows XP Professional, which offered additional features such as support for Windows Server domains and two physical processors, and was targeted at power users, business and enterprise clients. Windows XP Media Center Edition has additional multimedia features enhancing the ability to record and watch TV shows, view DVD movies, and listen to music. Windows XP Tablet PC Edition was designed to run stylus applications built using the Tablet PC platform.

Windows XP was eventually released for two additional architectures, Windows XP 64-bit Edition for IA-64 (Itanium) processors and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition for x86-64. There is also Windows XP Embedded, a component version of the Windows XP Professional, and editions for specific markets such as Windows XP Starter Edition. By mid 2009, a manufacturer revealed the first Windows XP powered cellular telephone.^[10]

The NT-based versions of Windows, which are programmed in C, C++, and assembly,^[11] are known for their improved stability and efficiency over the 9x versions of Microsoft Windows.^[12][13] Windows XP presented a significantly redesigned graphical user interface, a change Microsoft promoted as more user-friendly than previous versions of Windows. A new software management facility called Side-by-Side Assembly was introduced to ameliorate the "DLL hell" that plagues 9x versions of Windows.^[14][15] It is also the first version of Windows to use product activation to combat illegal copying. Windows XP had also been criticized by some users for security vulnerabilities, tight integration of applications such as Internet Explorer 6 and Windows Media Player, and for aspects of its default user interface. Later versions with Service Pack 2, Service Pack 3, and Internet Explorer 8 addressed some of these concerns.

During development, the project was codenamed "Whistler", after Whistler, British Columbia, as many Microsoft employees skied at the Whistler-Blackcomb ski resort.^[16]

Windows Xp Pirated Edition

Windows Xp Dark Edtion V7

Windows 3D Turbo Xp

,.,

Number System

 

Bit & Byte

Computer uses the binary system. Any physical system that can exist in two distinct states (e.g., 0-1, on-off, hi-lo, yes-no, up-down, north-south, etc.) has the potential of being used to represent numbers or characters. A binary digit is called a bit. There are two possible states in a bit, usually expressed as 0 and 1.
A series of eight bits strung together makes a byte, much as 12 makes a dozen. With 8 bits, or 8 binary digits, there exist 2^⁸=256 possible combinations. The following table shows some of these combinations. (The number enclosed in parentheses represents the decimal equivalent.)

00000000 (  0)   00010000 ( 16)   00100000 ( 32)  ...  01110000 (112)
     00000001 (  1)   00010001 ( 17)   00100001 ( 33)  ...  01110001 (113)
     00000010 (  2)   00010010 ( 18)   00100010 ( 34)  ...  01110010 (114)
     00000011 (  3)   00010011 ( 19)   00100011 ( 35)  ...  01110011 (115)
     00000100 (  4)   00010100 ( 20)   00100100 ( 36)  ...  01110100 (116)
     00000101 (  5)   00010101 ( 21)   00100101 ( 37)  ...  01110101 (117)
     00000110 (  6)   00010110 ( 22)   00100110 ( 38)  ...  01110110 (118)
     00000111 (  7)   00010111 ( 23)   00100111 ( 39)  ...  01110111 (119)
     00001000 (  8)   00011000 ( 24)   00101000 ( 40)  ...  01111000 (120)
     00001001 (  9)   00011001 ( 25)   00101001 ( 41)  ...  01111001 (121)
     00001010 ( 10)   00011010 ( 26)   00101010 ( 42)  ...  01111010 (122)
     00001011 ( 11)   00011011 ( 27)   00101011 ( 43)  ...  01111011 (123)
     00001100 ( 12)   00011100 ( 28)   00101100 ( 44)  ...  01111100 (124)
     00001101 ( 13)   00011101 ( 29)   00101101 ( 45)  ...  01111101 (125)
     00001110 ( 14)   00011110 ( 30)   00101110 ( 46)  ...  01111110 (126)
     00001111 ( 15)   00011111 ( 31)   00101111 ( 47)  ...  01111111 (127)

          :
     (continued)
          :

     10000000 (128)   10010000 (144)   10100000 (160)  ...  11110000 (240)
     10000001 (129)   10010001 (145)   10100001 (161)  ...  11110001 (241)
     10000010 (130)   10010010 (146)   10100010 (162)  ...  11110010 (242)
     10000011 (131)   10010011 (147)   10100011 (163)  ...  11110011 (243)
     10000100 (132)   10010100 (148)   10100100 (164)  ...  11110100 (244)
     10000101 (133)   10010101 (149)   10100101 (165)  ...  11110101 (245)
     10000110 (134)   10010110 (150)   10100110 (166)  ...  11110110 (246)
     10000111 (135)   10010111 (151)   10100111 (167)  ...  11110111 (247)
     10001000 (136)   10011000 (152)   10101000 (168)  ...  11111000 (248)
     10001001 (137)   10011001 (153)   10101001 (169)  ...  11111001 (249)
     10001010 (138)   10011010 (154)   10101010 (170)  ...  11111010 (250)
     10001011 (139)   10011011 (155)   10101011 (171)  ...  11111011 (251)
     10001100 (140)   10011100 (156)   10101100 (172)  ...  11111100 (252)
     10001101 (141)   10011101 (157)   10101101 (173)  ...  11111101 (253)
     10001110 (142)   10011110 (158)   10101110 (174)  ...  11111110 (254)
     10001111 (143)   10011111 (159)   10101111 (175)  ...  11111111 (255)

---

K & M

2^¹⁰=1024 is commonly referred to as a "K". It is approximately equal to one thousand. Thus, 1 Kbyte is 1024 bytes. Likewise, 1024K is referred to as a "Meg". It is approximately equal to a million. 1 Mega byte is 1024*1024=1,048,576 bytes. If you remember that 1 byte equals one alphabetical letter, you can develop a good feel for size.

---

Number System

You may regard each digit as a box that can hold a number. In the binary system, there can be only two choices for this number -- either a "0" or a "1". In the octal system, there can be eight possibilities:

"0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7".

In the decimal system, there are ten different numbers that can enter the digit box:

"0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9".

In the hexadecimal system, we allow 16 numbers:

"0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "A", "B", "C", "D", "E", and "F".

As demonstrated by the following table, there is a direct correspondence between the binary system and the octal system, with three binary digits corresponding to one octal digit. Likewise, four binary digits translate directly into one hexadecimal digit. In computer usage, hexadecimal notation is especially common because it easily replaces the binary notation, which is too long and human mistakes in transcribing the binary numbers are too easily made. Base Conversion Table

BIN    OCT   HEX   DEC
     ----------------------
     0000   00     0     0
     0001   01     1     1
     0010   02     2     2
     0011   03     3     3
     0100   04     4     4
     0101   05     5     5
     0110   06     6     6
     0111   07     7     7
     ----------------------
     1000   10     8     8
     1001   11     9     9
     1010   12     A    10
     1011   13     B    11
     1100   14     C    12
     1101   15     D    13
     1110   16     E    14
     1111   17     F    15

---

Convert From Any Base To Decimal

Let's think more carefully what a decimal number means. For example, 1234 means that there are four boxes (digits); and there are 4 one's in the right-most box (least significant digit), 3 ten's in the next box, 2 hundred's in the next box, and finally 1 thousand's in the left-most box (most significant digit). The total is 1234:

Original Number:      1     2     3    4
                           |     |     |    |
     How Many Tokens:      1     2     3    4
     Digit/Token Value: 1000   100    10    1
     Value:             1000 + 200  + 30  + 4  = 1234

or simply,  1*1000 + 2*100 + 3*10 + 4*1 = 1234

Thus, each digit has a value: 10^⁰=1 for the least significant digit, increasing to 10^¹=10, 10^²=100, 10^³=1000, and so forth. Likewise, the least significant digit in a hexadecimal number has a value of 16^⁰=1 for the least significant digit, increasing to 16^¹=16 for the next digit, 16^²=256 for the next, 16^³=4096 for the next, and so forth. Thus, 1234 means that there are four boxes (digits); and there are 4 one's in the right-most box (least significant digit), 3 sixteen's in the next box, 2 256's in the next, and 1 4096's in the left-most box (most significant digit). The total is:

1*4096 + 2*256 + 3*16 + 4*1 = 4660

Example. Convert the hexadecimal number 4B3 to decimal notation. What about the decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal number 4B3.3?
Solution:

Original Number:     4    B    3  .  3
                          |    |    |     |
     How Many Tokens:     4   11    3     3
     Digit/Token Value: 256   16    1     0.0625
     Value:            1024 +176  + 3   + 0.1875  = 1203.1875

Example. Convert 234.14 expressed in an octal notation to decimal.
Solution:

Original Number:     2    3    4  .  1       4
                          |    |    |     |       |
     How Many Tokens:     2    3    4     1       4
     Digit/Token Value:  64    8    1     0.125   0.015625
     Value:             128 + 24  + 4   + 0.125 + 0.0625    = 156.1875

Another way is to think of a cash register with different slots, each holding bills of a different denomination.

---

Convert From Decimal to Any Base

Again, let's think about what you do to obtain each digit. As an example, let's start with a decimal number 1234 and convert it to decimal notation. To extract the last digit, you move the decimal point left by one digit, which means that you divide the given number by its base 10.

1234/10 = 123 + 4/10

The remainder of 4 is the last digit. To extract the next last digit, you again move the decimal point left by one digit and see what drops out.

123/10 = 12 + 3/10

The remainder of 3 is the next last digit. You repeat this process until there is nothing left. Then you stop. In summary, you do the following:

Quotient  Remainder
     -----------------------------
     1234/10 =   123        4 --------+
      123/10 =    12        3 ------+ |
       12/10 =     1        2 ----+ | |
        1/10 =     0        1 --+ | | |   (Stop when the quotient is 0.)
                                | | | |
                                1 2 3 4   (Base 10)

Now, let's try a nontrivial example. Let's express a decimal number 1341 in binary notation. Note that the desired base is 2, so we repeatedly divide the given decimal number by 2.

Quotient  Remainder
     -----------------------------
     1341/2  =   670        1 ----------------------+
      670/2  =   335        0 --------------------+ |
      335/2  =   167        1 ------------------+ | |
      167/2  =    83        1 ----------------+ | | |
       83/2  =    41        1 --------------+ | | | |
       41/2  =    20        1 ------------+ | | | | |
       20/2  =    10        0 ----------+ | | | | | |
       10/2  =     5        0 --------+ | | | | | | |
        5/2  =     2        1 ------+ | | | | | | | |
        2/2  =     1        0 ----+ | | | | | | | | |
        1/2  =     0        1 --+ | | | | | | | | | |  (Stop when the quotient is 0)
                                | | | | | | | | | | |
                                1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1  (BIN; Base 2)

Let's express the same decimal number 1341 in octal notation.

Quotient  Remainder
     -----------------------------
     1341/8  =   167        5 --------+
      167/8  =    20        7 ------+ |
       20/8  =     2        4 ----+ | |
        2/8  =     0        2 --+ | | |  (Stop when the quotient is 0)
                                | | | |
                                2 4 7 5  (OCT; Base 8)

Let's express the same decimal number 1341 in hexadecimal notation.

Quotient  Remainder
     -----------------------------
     1341/16 =    83       13 ------+
       83/16 =     5        3 ----+ |
        5/16 =     0        5 --+ | |  (Stop when the quotient is 0)
                                | | |
                                5 3 D  (HEX; Base 16)

Example. Convert the decimal number 3315 to hexadecimal notation. What about the hexadecimal equivalent of the decimal number 3315.3?

Solution:

               Quotient  Remainder
     -----------------------------
     3315/16 =   207        3 ------+
      207/16 =    12       15 ----+ |
       12/16 =     0       12 --+ | |  (Stop when the quotient is 0)
                                | | |
                                C F 3  (HEX; Base 16)

                                        (HEX; Base 16)
                Product  Integer Part   0.4 C C C ...
     --------------------------------     | | | |
     0.3*16   =   4.8        4        ----+ | | | | |
     0.8*16   =  12.8       12        ------+ | | | |
     0.8*16   =  12.8       12        --------+ | | |
     0.8*16   =  12.8       12        ----------+ | |
              :                       ---------------------+
              :
   Thus, 3315.3 (DEC) --> CF3.4CCC... (HEX)

---

Note that from the Base Conversion Table, you can easily get the binary notation from the hexadecimal number by grouping four binary digits per hexadecimal digit, or from or the octal number by grouping three binary digits per octal digit, and vice versa.

HEX  5    3    D
     BIN 0101 0011 1101

     OCT  2   4   7   5
     BIN 010 100 111 101

Finally, the fractional part is a decimal number can also be converted to any base by repeatedly multiplying the given number by the target base. Example: Convert a decimal number 0.1234 to binary notation

(BIN; Base 2)
                Product  Integer Part   0.0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 ...
     --------------------------------     | | | | | | | | | | | | |
     0.1234*2 =  0.2468      0        ----+ | | | | | | | | | | | |
     0.2468*2 =  0.4936      0        ------+ | | | | | | | | | | |
     0.4936*2 =  0.9872      0        --------+ | | | | | | | | | |
     0.9872*2 =  1.9744      1        ----------+ | | | | | | | | |
     0.9744*2 =  1.9488      1        ------------+ | | | | | | | |
     0.9488*2 =  1.8976      1        --------------+ | | | | | | |
     0.8976*2 =  1.7952      1        ----------------+ | | | | | |
     0.7952*2 =  1.5904      1        ------------------+ | | | | |
     0.5904*2 =  1.1808      1        --------------------+ | | | |
     0.1808*2 =  0.3616      0        ----------------------+ | | |
     0.3616*2 =  0.7232      0        ------------------------+ | |
     0.7232*2 =  1.4464      1        --------------------------+ |
              :                       ----------------------------+
              :

---

Additon and Multiplication Tables

You generate the addition tables in bases other then 10 by following the same rule you do in base 10. The resulting tables have the appearance of shifting the columns to the left by one in each subsequent rows. Note how simple the addition and multiplication tables are for the binary system; addition operation is simply the bit-wise XOR operation with carry, and multiplication is simply the logical AND operation.

Decimal Addition Table:

   | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9
---+-----------------------------
 0 | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9
 1 | 1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10
 2 | 2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11
 3 | 3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12
 4 | 4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13
 5 | 5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14
 6 | 6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15
 7 | 7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
 8 | 8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
 9 | 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Binary Addition Table:

   | 0  1
---+-----
 0 | 0  1
 1 | 1 10

Octal Addition Table:

   | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7
---+-----------------------
 0 | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7
 1 | 1  2  3  4  5  6  7 10
 2 | 2  3  4  5  6  7 10 11
 3 | 3  4  5  6  7 10 11 12
 4 | 4  5  6  7 10 11 12 13
 5 | 5  6  7 10 11 12 13 14
 6 | 6  7 10 11 12 13 14 15
 7 | 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Hexadecimal Addition Table:

   | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F
---+-----------------------------------------------
 0 | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F
 1 | 1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F 10
 2 | 2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F 10 11
 3 | 3  4  5  6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F 10 11 12
 4 | 4  5  6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F 10 11 12 13
 5 | 5  6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F 10 11 12 13 14
 6 | 6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F 10 11 12 13 14 15
 7 | 7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
 8 | 8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
 9 | 9  A  B  C  D  E  F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
 A | A  B  C  D  E  F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
 B | B  C  D  E  F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A
 C | C  D  E  F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B
 D | D  E  F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C
 E | E  F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D
 F | F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E

You can also generate multiplication tables in bases other than 10 by following the same rule you do in base 10.

Decimal Multiplication Table:

   | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9
---+-----------------------------
 0 | 0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0
 1 | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9
 2 | 0  2  4  6  8 10 12 14 16 18
 3 | 0  3  6  9 12 15 18 21 24 27
 4 | 0  4  8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
 5 | 0  5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
 6 | 0  6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54
 7 | 0  7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63
 8 | 0  8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72
 9 | 0  9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81

Binary Multiplication Table:

   | 0  1
---+-----
 0 | 0  0
 1 | 0  1

Octal Multiplication Table:

   | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7
---+-----------------------
 0 | 0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0
 1 | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7
 2 | 0  2  4  6 10 12 14 16
 3 | 0  3  6 11 14 17 22 25
 4 | 0  4 10 14 20 24 30 34
 5 | 0  5 12 17 24 31 36 43
 6 | 0  6 14 22 30 36 44 52
 7 | 0  7 16 25 34 43 52 61

Hexadecimal Multiplication Table:

   | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F
---+-----------------------------------------------
 0 | 0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0
 1 | 0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  A  B  C  D  E  F
 2 | 0  2  4  6  8  A  C  E 10 12 14 16 18 1A 1C 1E
 3 | 0  3  6  9  C  F 12 15 18 1B 1E 21 24 27 2A 2D
 4 | 0  4  8  C 10 14 18 1C 20 24 28 2C 30 34 38 3C
 5 | 0  5  A  F 14 19 1E 23 28 2D 32 37 3C 41 46 4B
 6 | 0  6  C 12 18 1E 24 2A 30 36 3C 42 48 4E 54 5A
 7 | 0  7  E 15 1C 23 2A 31 38 3F 46 4D 54 5B 62 69
 8 | 0  8 10 18 20 28 30 38 40 48 50 58 60 68 70 78
 9 | 0  9 12 1B 24 2D 36 3F 48 51 5A 63 6C 75 7E 87
 A | 0  A 14 1E 28 32 3C 46 50 5A 64 6E 78 82 8C 96
 B | 0  B 16 21 2C 37 42 4D 58 63 6E 79 84 8F 9A A5
 C | 0  C 18 24 30 3C 48 54 60 6C 78 84 90 9C A8 B4
 D | 0  D 1A 27 34 41 4E 5B 68 75 82 8F 9C A9 B6 C3
 E | 0  E 1C 2A 38 46 54 62 70 7E 8C 9A A8 B6 C4 D2
 F | 0  F 1E 2D 3C 4B 5A 69 78 87 96 A5 B4 C3 D2 E1

---

Arithmetic Operations

You do arithematic with hexadecimal numbers or numbers in any base in exactly the same way you do with decimal numbers, except that the addition and multiplcation tables you employ to base your calculations are a bit different. Substraction is equivalent to adding a negative number, and division is equivalent to multiplying by the inverse.

Example. Find the sum of two hexadecimal integers 123 and DEF.

Solution:

From the above hexadecimal addition table, we see that:
3+F=12, 2+E=10, and 1+D=E

             123
           + DEF
           -----
     carry   11
             E02
           -----
     sum     F12

Example. Find the product of two hexadecimal integers 123 and DEF.

Solution:

Step 1: We break down the second multiplier into single digits.
        123*DEF = 123*(D00+E0+F)
                = (123*D)*100 + (123*E)*10 + (123*F)

Step 2: We find the product in parentheses.
        From the above hexadecimal multiplication table, we see that:
        1*D=D, 2*D=1A, 3*D=27; thus,
        123*D = (100+20+3)*D
              = 1*D*100 + 2*D*10 + 3*D
              = D*100   + 1A*10  + 27
              = D00     + 1A0    + 27
              = EC7
        Likewise,
        123*E = (100+20+3)*E
              = 1*E*100 + 2*E*10 + 3*E
              = E*100   + 1C*10  + 2A
              = E00     + 1C0    + 2A
              = FEA
        123*F = (100+20+3)*F
              = 1*F*100 + 2*F*10 + 3*F
              = F*100   + 1E*10  + 2D
              = F00     + 1E0    + 2D
              = 110D

        Or, in elementary school style:

             123       123       123
           x   D     x   E     x   F
           -----     -----     -----
              27        2A        2D
             1A        1C        1E
             D         E         F
           -----     -----     -----
             EC7       FEA      110D

Step 3: We sum up the individual products.
        123*DEF = (123*D)*100 + (123*E)*10 + (123*F)
                = EC7*100     + FEA*10     + 110D
                = EC700       + FEA0       + 110D
                = FD6AD

        Or, in elementary school style:

             123
           x DEF
           -----
            110D
            FEA
           EC7
           -----
           FD6AD

,.

The Invention That Changed the World

 In 1940, a team of British scientists arrived in Washington bearing Britain's most closely guarded technological secrets - including the cavity magnetron, a revolutionary new source of microwave energy. Its arrival triggered the most dramatic mobilization of science in history, as America's top scientists enlisted to convert the invention into a potent military weapon. Microwave radars eventually helped destroy Japanese warships and Nazi buzz bombs, and enabled Allied bombers to "see" through cloud cover. After the war, the work of the radar veterans continues to affect our lives - controlling air traffic, forecasting the weather and providing physicians with powerful diagnostic tools. With anecdotes and revelations, this work explores the work of the scientists who created a winning weapon and changed the world forever.

 THE INVENTION THAT CHANGED THE WORLD  

Vannevar Bush was president of Carnegie Institution in Washington DC. Bush created National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), established in 1938, in order to promote cooperation of civilian scientists with the military (page 34). He provided funding for the Radiation Laboratory (Rad Lab) at M.I.T. (page 50) and he created the Office of Scientific Research and Development, a branch of the U.S. government (page 115). Most importantly, he convinced the stubborn Ernest J. King (Chief of Naval Operations and Commander in Chief of the U.S. fleet) to give up his out-moded and wrong-headed idea that anti-submarine airplanes should only be used for defensive purposes, and that instead the U.S. should adopt an aggressive search-and-destroy effort in using U.S. airplanes and radar to hunt down and destroy German U-boats (pages 158-161).

ALFRED LOOMIS. Loomis was a Harvard law school graduate with Wall Street experience in financing public utilities. He was also interested in gadgets, and setup his own radar lab in Tuxedo Park, New York. He decided to use NDRC money to set up a radar lab at M.I.T., rather than set it up at Carnegie or at Bell Labs (page 45). This M.I.T. lab was called, "Radiation Laboratory," and was founded in Nov. 1940. Eddie Bowen introduced the cavity magnetron transmitter to the Rad Lab. Rad Lab workers also included Luis Alvarez, Ernest Pollard, I.I. Rabi, Lee DuBridge, Edwin McMillin, and Jim Lawson. Their goal was to combine the transmitting aerial and receiving aerial into one aerial (page 101). The Rad Lab focused on air-to-air, air-to-ship, and air-to-sub detection. I.I. Rabi's goal was to reduce the wavelength from 10 centimeters down to 3 centimeters. Loomis provided the innovation of conical scanning (page 109).

RECONCILING BRITISH AND U.S. TECHNOLOGY. When first compared, British radar worked better than the U.S. radar designed at M.I.T. However, when the British receiver was used with a U.S. radar unit, and when the U.S. vacuum tube was replaced with crystals (the U.S. Rad Lab workers had initially rejected crystals, but they did not realize at this earlier time that their crystals had been "burned out"), the result was a radar device suitable for mass production (the year 1941) (pages 117-118).

ROBERT WATSON WATT. Watson Watt was an engineer from Scotland, and expert on radio static and ionosphere (page 55). Watson Watt proposed radar as follows: "at a wavelength of 50 meters a transmitter sending 15 amperes through an aerial should produce a detectable echo from planes 10 miles distant and flying at 20,000 feet." (page 56). Although it was widely known in the 1920s and 1930s that planes and ships interfered with radio waves, Watson Watt added the component of pulses. Pulses is one of the things that distinguishes radar from ordinary radio waves. While pulses had earlier been used for radar, Watson Watt was the first to propose that it be used for military defense.

HERMAN GORING. Goring started the Battle of Britain in July 10, 1940, with 2400 German airplanes. However, during the previous two years, the Germans had paid little attention to the chain of radar towers erected along the English coastline, and because of this oversight, the British were able to use radar to fend off the German air invasion, using Hurricanes, and Spitfires (pages 90-97).

J. RANDALL and H. BOOT at TRE. The cavity magnetron, which provided a better way to generate microwaves, was invented by British men J. Randall and H.Boot at Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) in February 1940 (pages 82-83). Another goal of Randall and Boot was to use shorter wavelengths in radar, and this was solved by using the klystron (klystron was invented by Varian brothers at Stanford University).

EDDIE BOWEN. Eddie Bowen worked under Watson Watt while earning his Ph.D., then assigned to a secret radar laboratory in England at Orfordness, and worked on transmitter while others in the same lab worked on receiver and cathode ray (page 65), where they solved problems relating to pulse (they compressed it) and determining the height of invading airplanes (they used perpendicular antennas), and making radar system small enough to fit into airplanes (page 67). Based on these results, the British government built a chain of radar towers along the coast in 1935. In 1936, Eddie Bowen and Watson Watt moved the lab to Bawdsey Research Station. Eddie Bowen's first demonstration of airborn radar took place in Aug. 1937 (page 71), ordered radar to be installed in British airplanes (Blenheim nightfighters). We are told that, at this point in time, Germany had annexed Austria and Czechoslovakia, and had made a non-aggression pact with USSR (soon to be broken by Germany). In Sept, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland in he invaded USSR in June 1941 (page 119). The Bawdsey lab was also where engineers figured out how to coordinate the signals coming from a chain of radar towers into accurate information (filtering system) (page 90).

KARL DONITZ. Karl Donitz commanded German submarines (U-boats) which, by spring 1941, was sinking 100 per month. This period was called Die gluckliche Zeit (Happy Time). The British used ship-to-sub radar and air-to-sub radar to hunt for U-boats (page 121) and also to sink the Bismark (May 27, 1941). Denis Robinson (British) an electrical engineer was responsible for use of crystals in British receivers. Robinson collaborated with DuBridge and others at the Rad Lab at M.I.T. in designing air-to-sub radar (pages 119-125). In early 1942, Donitz started Paukenschlag (which means drum beat) which ushered in a second Happy Time, where German U-boats patrolled the east coast of the United States, singing 35 ships in three weeks, and 216 shps in three months (pages139-142). One reason Donitz was successful was that U.S. military brass (Ernst J. King) distrusted technology, was overly conservative, and also suffered from a character defect (he was overly competitive with top brass from other branches of the U.S. military) (pages 158-161). Donitz continued to sink ships in the Gulf of Mexico and Carribbean (page 151). At this time, the U.S. still did not have any program for systematically searching for and destroying U-boats.

A big advance against U-boats came from the use of the Leigh Light on British airplanes, which supplemented use of radar and was used at close range (page 154). Donitz started using devices (Metox devices) to detect British radar, within two months of initiation of the Leigh Light, allowing U-boats to escape airplanes. At this point, early 1943, it appeared that the Germans might win WWII. Eventually, Vannavar Bush, with the use of delicate diplomatic efforts, was able to convince stubborn Ernest J. King to use radar for aggressive hunt-and-destroy missions against U-boats. Thus, the combination of Vannavar Bush's policy of search-and-destroy missions using radar-equipped airplanes, Leigh Lights, and the use of phony noisemakers towed from Allied ships to trick German acoustic torpedoes, the tide was turned against Karl Donitz, and his packs of U-boats were defeated